[edit]
Pre-Inca era[edit]
Until shortly before the rise of the Inca Empire, the area of the modern city contained nomadic groups devoted to hunting, fishing and gathering. They domesticated animals, mainly camelids, and began to settle and practice agriculture. Over time, migration within the region led to the first settlements, many of them connected to the sea. These links created early communication routes and made the territory more accessible.
Irrigation canals were built in the Chili River valley, allowing cultivation on the plains and on the terraces along the river slopes. The Yarabaya and Chimba groups settled in the area now occupied by the city and, together with the Collagua and Cabana communities, developed an agrarian economy in the desert.
Inca era[edit]
Arequipa in 1615, by Guamán Poma de Ayala.
When Mayta Cápac reached the plain of the Chili River, he did not found a city. Instead, he established mitma groups, relocated by the Inca state for administrative and control purposes, to guard and administer a frontier zone. The chronicles of Pedro Cieza de León contradict the idea that Mayta Cápac himself expanded Inca rule into the Arequipa valley, since that Inca died before the conquest of Kuntisuyu. His successor carried out these expeditions, although the process was interrupted by the Chanca threat, which besieged Viracocha in his capital. In response, Inca Yupanqui took command, adopted the title Pachacuti, defeated the Chancas and consolidated control over several regions, including the Chili valley.
A tradition derived from Garcilaso de la Vega holds that the Incas did found a town in the valley. This idea was popular among Arequipan historians in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Inca Garcilaso de la Vega wrote that Huayna Capac arrived in the Chili River valley around 1170 and established several settlements, including the hamlets or villages of Yanahuara, Cayma, Tiabaya, Paucarpata, Socabaya, Characato and Chiguata.
The establishment of mitma groups, however, did not amount to the founding of a town in the Hispanic sense. In Arequipa, Mayta Cápac carried out actions similar to those in Chuquisaca: he replaced the native population with mitma settlers.
Viceregal era[edit]
Arequipa was founded on 15 August 1540 by Juan de la Torre and Garcí Manuel de Carbajal, one of Francisco Pizarro's lieutenants, in the Chili River valley as the "Villa de la Asunción de Nuestra Señora del Valle Hermoso de Arequipa", in an area occupied by Indigenous settlements. After the foundation, town lots were distributed: Pizarro, the cabildo and the Order of Santo Domingo each received a whole block; the founders received quarter-block lots; and the main church received half a block, separated from nearby lots by the cathedral passage.
When the city was founded, it already had a cabildo, because the new settlement resulted from the relocation of Villa Hermosa de Camaná. Its name was partly preserved as Villa Hermosa de Arequipa, until Charles V of Germany and I of Spain elevated the villa to city status by royal decree issued at Fuensalida on 22 September 1541. Garcí Manuel de Carbajal managed the relocation, while Juan de la Torre was appointed to oversee the foundation. When the new alderman and mayor were designated, the posts went to Juan de la Torre, while Garcí Manuel de Carbajal returned to the new capital of Los Reyes to certify the foundation before the marquis.
The cabildo elected local authorities, who took office on the first day of the year. These included the mayors, the city procurator, the steward, the market inspector, the official responsible for estates of the deceased, and the administrator of the hospital and apothecary. Civil wars disrupted this order, as rebel groups made appointments in favor of their supporters. From 1553, by order of Viceroy Martín Enríquez de Almanza, the lottery system known as insaculación was introduced, under which a mayor "of residents" and another "of soldiers" were elected; these were later replaced by a mayor "of residents" and one "of citizens".
By decree of Philip II of Spain, the accountant, treasurer and royal officials of the treasury were allowed to serve simultaneously as aldermen. This produced overlapping powers and conflict. To avoid such disputes, the offices of standard-bearer and alderman were sold and made perpetual, a system that remained in force until independence. The city gained relevance and received numerous distinctions within the Viceroyalty of Peru. Among the phrases of praise found in literature is one in La Galatea by Miguel de Cervantes, where the Spanish poet Diego Martínez de Rivera, while in Arequipa, refers to the city with the phrase "In Arequipa, eternal spring".
Among the first public works were the main church, the town hall, the bridge over the Chili River and the monastery of Nuestra Señora de Gracia. In 1609, following a petition sent to Pope Paul V on 20 July 1609, a papal bull of 6 January 1612 authorized the demarcation of the diocese of Arequipa. King Philip III of Spain entrusted the mission to Viceroy Juan de Mendoza y Luna.
During the 17th and 18th centuries, the city underwent notable consolidation and growth. Economically, Arequipa became a commercial link between the agricultural production of its valleys and regional mining trade, especially the Caylloma mines and the Potosí circuit. The valleys of Vítor, Siguas and Majes supplied the city with wheat, maize, wine and aguardiente, products that brought it renown and commercial dynamism.
Urban and architectural life in the 17th century was marked by the splendor of religious architecture, with churches such as San Agustín, La Merced and San Francisco, as well as large convents such as Santa Catalina and Santa Teresa, which were not only religious centers but also spaces of sociability and female cultural life. The 18th century, by contrast, saw a boom in civil architecture, with manor houses and palaces such as Casa del Moral and Casa Tristán del Pozo, built in sillar stone with Baroque portals that gave the city stylistic unity and monumentality.
Cultural life accompanied this development. Theatre contracts for performances in the city are documented as early as 1637, and education expanded during the 18th century, reflected in high literacy rates and in the activity of schools run by religious orders and the Colegio de Educandas, institutions that trained much of the local Creole elite. A literary and chronicle tradition flourished in parallel, especially the work of Ventura Travada y Córdova, which offers a detailed portrait of Arequipan religiosity and social life in his time. Female convents, particularly Santa Catalina and Santa Teresa, became centers of sociability, written culture and artistic patronage.
The 18th century was also marked by natural disasters and reconstruction. Earlier earthquakes, such as the 1582 quake and the 1600 eruption of Huaynaputina, had already forced rebuilding, but the 1784 earthquake destroyed much of the city in that century. Reconstruction in sillar consolidated Arequipa's distinctive architectural profile and produced richly decorated Baroque portals. This construction process, together with the maturity reached in civil architecture, made the city a reference point for the mestizo Baroque of the southern Andes.
In political and social terms, Arequipa remained relatively stable during the Indigenous and mestizo uprisings that shook other regions of the viceroyalty. The local elite, loyal to the Crown, organized militias and supported royal campaigns, reinforcing the city's image as loyal and contributing to its recognition as a bastion of stability in southern Peru. The stance drew on an earlier tradition of public adherence to the Spanish Crown in the 16th and 17th centuries. In the 18th century, this loyalty, known as fidelismo, was expressed by figures such as Francisco de Paula Quirós, Mariano Eduardo de Rivero, Nicolás Fernández and José Miguel de Lastarria. During the uprising of Túpac Amaru II, the city equipped a column of troops at its own expense and helped break the siege of La Paz, earning the title "Restorative Province of the Collao". For these services, Charles IV of Spain issued a royal decree at San Lorenzo on 5 December 1805 ordering that it be styled "Most Faithful".
On 16 November 1818, the city council was granted the form of address "Most Excellent". The distinction was granted in view of reports by Hipólito Unanue, deputy for the province of Arequipa, and the city council, concerning Arequipa's participation in defense of the royal cause during the 1809 uprising in La Paz.
Independence[edit]
During the independence process, Arequipa's situation reflected the civil conflict that affected many Peruvian provinces. Its geography and location, for example, were decisive when the rebel troops of Mateo Pumacahua entered the city. Despite a brief period of euphoria, these forces did not remain for long, and viceregal power was maintained until the Battle of Ayacucho, reflecting the complexity of civil war in the region.
Unlike other Peruvian cities, especially Lima, Arequipa remained publicly loyal to the Spanish Crown and closely followed the directives of Spanish monarchs. This loyalty, known as fidelismo, had defenders such as Francisco de Paula Quiroz and Mariano de Rivero. In 1805 the city received the title "Most Faithful" by royal charter. From its Spanish foundation and for three centuries, Arequipa maintained a population predominantly of Spanish origin. This demography strengthened its fidelity to Spain, as did a social structure dominated by Spaniards and supported by high society. Its geographical location also insulated it from independence movements and distanced it from major Indigenous centers.
During this period, viceregal authorities adopted a tolerant stance toward the free-thinking tendencies of Arequipans. One expression was the creation of the Academia Lauretana of Sciences and Arts on 10 December 1821. Directed by Evaristo Tadeo Gómez Sánchez, the academy was a center of free thought and introduced the department's first printing press. Shortly after its foundation, prominent members such as Francisco Xavier de Luna Pizarro, Aparicio Gómez Sánchez and others openly supported the emancipatory cause.
There is debate among historians about the first declaration of independence: some hold that the first act was signed in Supe or Ica, while most agree that it was the cabildo of Supe in April 1820. Historian Agustín de la Puente described the period as a paradox:
While the south, where the precursor revolutions had begun with Túpac Amaru, remained under royal rule, the north, with fewer prior revolutionary movements, became independent earlier. A curious historical phenomenon.— José Agustín de la Puente
During the South American wars of independence, Arequipa became an important stage in the struggle for autonomy. Brigadier General Juan Bautista de Lavalle y Sagasosa led the region in civil and military matters, while Bishop José Sebastián de Goyeneche y Barreda guided the ecclesiastical sphere; both represented pillars of Spanish royalism in the city.
The Capitulation of Ayacucho, signed by Viceroy José de la Serna, marked a decisive turn. Its terms, however, were rejected by authorities of the Audiencia of Cusco. Against this background, Pío Tristán y Moscoso, born in Arequipa in 1773, was named the new viceroy of Peru in the city. His military career had included changing loyalties, from accompanying his father in the campaign against Túpac Amaru to serving in the Spanish army at the Battle of Roussillon and in royalist campaigns in Upper Peru.
After the Capitulation of Ayacucho, however, Pío Tristán changed his position. Despite his rank and service in the royalist army, he chose to detach himself from Spanish power and issued from Arequipa a proclamation recognizing Peru's new system of government. Sucre's notification of the capitulation reached Arequipa on 23 December 1824. The Municipality of Arequipa, after analyzing it, declared its adherence to the victory of Ayacucho and recognized Peruvian independence. José Gonzales Vigil delivered Sucre's communication to the municipality on 2 January 1825; the municipality responded with an agreement dated 30 December, recognizing the new system of government.
General Francisco de Paula Otero, appointed as the highest authority in Arequipa under the new political system, arrived in the city on 12 January 1825. On 6 February 1825 a solemn session was held, in which civil, ecclesiastical and military authorities swore allegiance to independence, officially sealing Arequipa's incorporation into the Republic of Peru.
Republican era[edit]
Capture of Arequipa, 1856. Marshal Ramón Castilla enters Arequipa to recover control of the city from the army of General Vivanco.
After independence was proclaimed, the area of the Intendancy of Arequipa was established as a department by decree of 26 May 1822. During the Congress of 1826 and the Constituent Assembly of 1827, the Arequipan and Lauretanan Francisco Xavier de Luna Pizarro presided. Under Simón Bolívar, Arequipa became a center of opposition to the Liberator's dictatorial tendencies after his victory at the Battle of Ayacucho. Arequipans such as Domingo Tristán, Benito Laso and Juan Gualberto Valdivia openly opposed the Bolivarian life constitution. At that time, the Academia Lauretana promoted the creation of the Colegio Nacional de la Independencia Americana and the National University of San Agustín in 1827.
In 1835, General Luis José de Orbegoso moved his administration from Lima to Arequipa in search of support from Bolivian president Andrés de Santa Cruz against Agustín Gamarra and Felipe Santiago Salaverry. The key confrontations between Salaverry and the Confederation forces were the battles of Uchumayo and Socabaya in February 1836, with victories for Salaverry and Santa Cruz respectively. On 18 February, Salaverry and his closest collaborators were executed in the Plaza de Armas.
In the republican era, a decree by General Orbegoso renamed the department and its capital as the "Department of the Law" and the "Heroic city of the free people of Arequipa", respectively. The transfer of Orbegoso's government to Arequipa in January 1835 led Felipe Santiago Salaverry to proclaim himself Supreme Chief in Lima, arguing that the country had no leader because Orbegoso was absent from the capital. With Salaverry's insurrection in Lima, Orbegoso had to centralize his government in Arequipa, the only city that recognized his presidential authority. In response to the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, Chile sent a military expedition in 1837, which arrived in Arequipa under Manuel Blanco Encalada. A peace treaty was signed at Paucarpata, but Chile did not ratify it and sent a new expedition in 1838 under General Manuel Bulnes to support Ramón Castilla and other Peruvian leaders against Santa Cruz.
Grand plaza and market of Arequipa in the 1860s, from Peru; incidents of travel and exploration in the land of the Incas (1877).
Over the years, Arequipa was the epicenter of several military uprisings. In 1843, General Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco was proclaimed supreme leader, but his government ended after the Battle of Carmen Alto in 1844. In 1854, General Ramón Castilla emerged from Arequipa as provisional president and consolidated power. He later faced opposition, especially from Vivanco, who rebelled again in 1856. Forces under Miguel de San Román confronted Vivanco at Paucarpata in 1857.
In 1868 an earthquake caused enormous damage in the city. In the mid-1860s, Ephraim George Squier traveled through much of Peru and wrote a book describing his journey. He wrote of Arequipa:
Probably no other inland city of South America was so well built before the earthquake; its houses, massive in structure and vaulted in roof, though rarely more than one story high, were built of hard volcanic stone, a style adopted after the earthquake of 1821 as a safeguard against similar disasters. The cathedral, now badly damaged, was vast and imposing and of a singular architectural style. Its inhabitants considered it one of the most beautiful in the world. It had a great bell, cast in the city itself, said to be larger than that of St Paul's Cathedral in London. Its population was around fifty thousand, many of them Indigenous. In science and art it was the most important city in Peru. Most prominent figures in modern Peruvian history, whether in literature, art, commerce, war or politics, were from Arequipa. It suffered greatly in the country's political struggles and, in December 1867, was bombarded for three days by President Prado.— E. G. Squier, Peru. Incidents of travel and exploration in the land of the Incas (1877), pp. 223-224
War of the Pacific[edit]
Main article: War of the Pacific
On 17 April 1879, Chilean captain Enrique Simpson Baeza arrived at the port of Mollendo with two ships and landed troops to loot goods, destroy vessels and damage the port. The local population responded with the few weapons it had, inflicting casualties on the attackers and forcing them to withdraw. In retaliation, Simpson ordered a twenty-minute bombardment of the town, damaging houses, the pier and warehouses, and making Mollendo the first Peruvian port attacked in the conflict. He then imposed a blockade and demanded the departure of foreign ships, but not before looting goods from a French vessel. These acts were denounced by the consular corps of Mollendo and Arequipa, as well as by the French vice-consul, who documented the theft committed by Chilean forces.
Mariano Santos Mateo, by Gustavo González Echeverría.
During the Battle of Tarapacá, the "Guardias de Arequipa" battalion fought with determination; Mariano Santos Mateo, a Cuzco-born member of this Arequipan corps, captured the Chilean standard of the 2nd Line Regiment.
In March 1880, during the Expedition to Mollendo, Chilean troops landed because of the limited number of Peruvian defenders in the area. They looted the customs house and destroyed the Mollendo railway. Later, Arequipans are recorded among those who fought at the Battle of Alto de la Alianza in 1880. Colonel Carlos Llosa, for example, led the Zepita Battalion in the fighting.
When war broke out with Chile, which has robbed us of the best lives of our brothers, Carlos Llosa was serving as subprefect of Mollendo and was the first to exchange fire with the Cochrane and a Chilean gunboat, behaving with the courage that earned him the congratulations of President Prado and of the army's leading commanders. Llosa longed to deserve a post at the center of operations and obtained transfer to Arica, where he was temporarily appointed commander of the "Zepita" after then-Colonel Cáceres was made commander general of the 1st Division. With that brilliant army corps, a model of discipline and courage, Carlos Llosa went to the Battle of Alto de la Alianza; and as he promised his comrades at the beginning of the combat, he fought inch by inch for the laurel of victory for the homeland and won only the glory of heroes, watering the battlefield with his blood and yielding his life in the flower of his age beside the national flag.— P. Bacigalupi, El Perú ilustrado, Nos. 157-181 (1890), p. 594
Colonel Sebastián Luna Bustamante, commander of the Cazadores del Misti No. 15 Battalion during the Battle of Alto de la Alianza.
The Arequipan commander Sebastián Luna Bustamante led the "Cazadores del Misti No. 15" battalion. On 25 May 1880, the eve of the Battle of Alto de la Alianza, the battalion participated in a failed night attack on Chilean forces camped in Quebrada Honda. On the morning of 26 May 1880, after the tired return to their trenches from the allied night incursions, the Battle of Tacna took place on the heights near the city. The Cazadores del Misti No. 15 fought fiercely, giving and asking no quarter. According to documents in the Velarde archive, its roll included four chiefs, 34 officers and 392 enlisted men, as well as 38 pack mules and no horses. The corps took positions in the front line between the Peruvian Zepita No. 2 and Arica No. 27 battalions.
After the Allied defeat at Alto de la Alianza, the Lima campaign began, in which Chilean forces landed in the capital without passing through Arequipa. Physician Augusto Pérez Araníbar also participated in the war: he joined the expedition that carried medicines to Arica while it was under naval siege, and later went to Lima to treat the wounded from the battles there.
Lizardo Montero arrived in Arequipa on 31 August 1882 and declared it the capital of Peru. He also convened a National Congress on 28 April 1883.
From one night to the next Arequipa became the "Capital of Peru": with a president and escort in the "palace", ministers and secretaries in their offices, the high military command in its barracks. An old and repeated dream became reality, although with the air of farce and tragedy: the government did not exercise power over the whole national territory, whose strategic areas were militarily occupied by the enemy.— Máximo Neira, Historia General de Arequipa
Montero's government had a "National Congress" installed on 22 April 1883 in the cloisters of Colegio Independencia and the National University of San Agustín. It had military backing from all men aged 20 to 60, forming an army of 4,000 men and 8,000 to 10,000 national guardsmen, and economic support based on levies and contributions imposed on both the economic elite and the southern agricultural districts. Peruvian forces in Arequipa, however, rebelled against Montero's authority. On 25 October 1883, a popular and military revolt overthrew Montero's government in Arequipa; he withdrew to La Paz, and Chilean troops under José Velásquez occupied the city on 29 October, when it was handed over by the city's diplomatic corps in the context of the Capture of Arequipa.
Homage to the martyrs of Quequeña.
On 24 November, Arequipa commemorates the Martyrs of Quequeña and Yarabamba, executed in 1883 during the Chilean occupation in the War of the Pacific. After repeated abuses, looting and assaults by a group of Chilean soldiers, local residents killed two soldiers. In retaliation, Chilean troops captured around 60 residents and, although many had not participated in the events, executed six and flogged others. The events are remembered as an act of resistance and dignity; the executed men were recognized as national heroes in 1984, and 24 November was established as a commemorative day. In 1884, the Revolution of Arequipa of 1884 occurred.
20th century[edit]
Casa del Moral, also known as Casona Williams, was commissioned by field master Manuel Santos de San Pedro, originally from Valladolid. Construction was completed between 1735 and 1740.
In the 20th century Arequipa inherited the damage of past earthquakes, such as those of 1868, 1878 and 1913, and underwent socioeconomic and political transformations. These earlier earthquakes had caused considerable damage to the city's infrastructure and social fabric. With the turn of the century, growing international demand led landlords and caudillos to alter their practices for exploiting the Indigenous peasantry in Puno. The resulting economic adjustment helped establish Arequipa as a center of middle classes, artisans and professionals by the early 20th century. As a result, the city developed a social structure influenced by urban bourgeois sectors with liberal and democratic tendencies, reinforced by its historical legacy and by the role of families, industrial sectors and unions.
Arequipa was also affected by the century's political turmoil. On 22 August 1930, Luis Sánchez Cerro took control, forcing President Augusto B. Leguía from office. On 27 October 1948, General Manuel A. Odría established a junta after deposing President José Luis Bustamante y Rivero. Beyond military movements, Arequipa was also a center of civic resistance. Two demonstrations against the Odría regime are especially notable: one in June 1950 and another that dominated the scene in December 1955.
In material progress, the 20th century in Arequipa saw infrastructure advances. The construction of the Arequipa-Islay railway, directed by Henry Meiggs, marked a turning point; it later connected with routes to Cusco, Juliaca and Puno. The first telegraph system opened in 1908, followed by an aqueduct in 1914. The 1930s were prolific in infrastructure, culminating in 1940 with the opening of Rodríguez Ballón International Airport. Arequipa's industrial park was officially established on 10 January 1966 through Law 15923, which boosted regional manufacturing, increased manufacturing activity and diversified the city's economic base.
21st century[edit]
In the early 21st century, Arequipa faced both cultural milestones and significant challenges. The historic center was inscribed as a World Heritage Site, underlining its cultural value. On 23 June 2001, however, the city suffered an 8.4-magnitude earthquake, one of the strongest recorded worldwide since 1900. The event seriously damaged many historic buildings.
After the earthquake, emergency measures were implemented and damage was assessed, with emphasis on public safety and restoration of damaged heritage. The architectural identity of the Historic Centre of Arequipa was prioritized, and areas such as Mercaderes Street and the San Lázaro quarter were pedestrianized. The opening of shopping centers such as Mall Aventura Plaza, Parque Lambramani and Real Plaza in 2010, along with modernization of Rodríguez Ballón International Airport, marked a change in the city's commercial and transport infrastructure.
Between 2010 and 2015, Arequipa experienced economic growth, partly because of mining projects such as Cerro Verde. This growth strengthened its position in southern Peru. By the end of the decade, however, the region was already showing signs of a slow decline in competitiveness, with important investment projects stalled. This vulnerability was sharply aggravated by the COVID-19 pandemic in Arequipa from 2020 onward.
The health crisis reached its most critical point in the region between July and August 2020, causing the collapse of the local health system. It was accompanied by severe economic contraction, with a projected fall in regional GDP of up to 14%. The institutional response was criticized for its lack of coherence, leaving economic reactivation largely to private initiative and a growing informal sector. The crisis also worsened social problems such as family violence and civic disengagement, in a context of weakening civil organizations.
Despite these challenges, the city has continued to address socio-environmental problems, including water management and urban planning. Its transport system has evolved through bus modernization and the promotion of sustainable mobility, including the introduction of electric buses. Cleanup of the Chili River has been another central goal, with wastewater treatment plants being implemented, although the process remains ongoing. Water intake, however, continues to face complications, including ravines activated by volcanic ash in 2024.
